Dama dama, Frisch, 1775

Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Cervidae, Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, pp. 350-443 : 416

17.

Common Fallow Deer

Dama dama

French: Daim d'Europe / German: Dambhirsch / Spanish: Gamo

Other common names: European Fallow Deer

Taxonomy. Cervus dama Linnaeus, 1758 ,

Sweden.

The first known species in the genus Dama , D. clactoniana, appeared in Europe in the Middle Pleistocene, about 600,000 years ago. Dama is probably an Upper Pliocene genus adapted to savanna-like and open woodland habitats of Europe, and the first representatives are not yet unanimously identified among the many medium-sized deer of that period. The first D. dama occurred in Europe about 200,000 years ago. During the first part of the last glaciation its range shrank and the species took refuge in southern Europe and Anatolia. The post-glacial range may have been reduced to Anatolia. Neolithic and Bronze Age records from Macedonia and Bulgaria, and later from Greek islands, may be interpreted as the first translocations by humans. The Greeks and others probably contributed to an artificial dispersal on central and western Mediterranean coasts, including North Africa. Romans introduced Common Fallow Deer to some areas of mainland Europe and to Great Britain. When separated from D. mesopotamica, Common Fallow Deer can be considered monotypic.

Distribution. Formerly Anatolia, Turkey, then has been introduced into Europe from ancient times and later into many other countries in North and South America, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji Is. The distribution map includes both the native range in Anatolia and the European continent with its old introductions.

Descriptive notes. Head-body 145-155 cm for males (adult bucks), and 130-145 cm for females (does), tail length 16-19 cm, shoulder height 85-95 cm (bucks) and 70-80 cm (does); post-rutting weight of adult bucks 50-80 kg and of adult does 35-50 kg. Adult bucks are on average 40-60% heavier than does. Medium-sized deer with short and high head. Males have a prominent and mobile larynx (Adam’s apple) and a brush of hairs from the elongated penis sheath. The rump patch is conspicuous, white with a black upper edge. The tail is relatively long, black above and white below. The tail and the black stripe bordering the rump patch form an inverted anchor. The summer coat is typically reddish-brown, with white spots on the back and the upper half of the flanks; the underside of the head and neck and the lower parts of the legs are whitish, the chest and the belly are white; a black dorsal stripe extends from the nape to the end of the tail; a horizontal white line borders the middle of the flank and an oblique line fringes the rear portion of the haunch. The winter coatis gray-brown, with spots barely detectable or absent. Three other color variants are commonly observed: “menil” (a paler coat pattern retaining spots in winter), black (actually dark brown), and white. Molts in May-June and September—October. Newborn fawns are spotted. Preorbital, front and rear interdigital, metatarsal and (in males) preputial glands are present. Permanent dentition of 32 teeth; molars erupt at 5-22 months of age. Antlers of adult bucks (four years and older) are typically well palmated; above the trez tine the beam develops a broad thin palm with terminal short points (spellers). Pedicles begin to grow at 7-9 months of age, the first set of antlers at twelve months. Yearlings are always spikers, with antlers 5-20 cm long. At 7-10 years antlers attain their full size. Adult antlers are on average 50-65 cm long, with records of 80-86 cm. Velvet shedding occurs in August, antler casting mainly in April. Antler regression usually occurs at 13-14 years of age, sometimes as early as ten years. Hooves are elongated and pointed, 8 cm long in adult bucks and 5-6 cm in does, with toe pads covering almost half of the hoof.

Habitat. Very flexible, it is often associated with open broadleaved woodlands with adjacent open ground, but it can also live in conifer plantations or Mediterranean scrubs. Cold temperatures and long-lasting snow cover are limiting factors. Up to 800-1000 m above sea level in the Alps and Apennines, up to 1500 m and more in the Pyrenees.

Food and Feeding. As an intermediate feeder with a relatively large rumen, it is a preferential grazer, feeding on grass and ground vegetation among trees, and herbs and forbs in neighboring fields. In Mediterranean habitats browsing leaves and buds of shrubs and trees may become particularly important.

Breeding. Most females attain puberty at 16 months of age; the minimum body weight compatible with reproduction is low, around 32 kg. Bucks reach physiological sexual maturity at about 16 months of age, but do not begin to mate before 3-4 years of age. Rutting season is in October. Does are polyestrous, with cycles of 22 days and a receptive time of only 15 hours. Males move into female areas and start competing to establish display grounds. Bucks are particularly flexible in adopting mating strategies. The most frequent one seems to be the defense of a single permanent territory, with males establishing non-contiguous rutting stands. But at least six other mating systems have been documented: temporary defense of stands, multiple stands (2-3 bucks in contiguous territories), leks (collective arenas with 5-25 bucks in symbolic display territories of few square meters), harem defense, multimale dominance groups (with the highest-ranking buck tolerating other males but achieving most matings) and following (pursuing single estrous does). Rutting bucks emit a series of repeated short groans up to exhaustion; they lose as much as 15-20% of their pre-rut weight. The gestation lenght is generally 229-234 days. Fawning season peaks in late May—early June. Does give birth to one fawn, weighing on average 4-5 kg; male offspring are about 10% heavier than females. After ten days the fawn accompanies its mother. Allosucking, i.e. mothers permitting fawns of other females to nurse, has been observed. Weaning occurs at 8-9 months of age. Bucks reach their full body weight at 5-6 years of age, and does attain final size at 3—4 years. Normally they live to a maximum of 15-16 years, with records of 20 years. Maximum longevity in captivity is 25 years of age. Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Eurasian Lynxes (Lynx lynx) are the main predators.

Activity patterns. It is active all day, alternating 6-8 periods of feeding, ruminating, resting, and moving. More diurnal when it is less disturbed, more crepuscular when disturbance is high.

Movements, Home range and Social organization. Common Fallow deer walk and trot; pronking is exhibited when alarmed. They are able to jump to 1-7-2 m. They tend to have relatively small home ranges, generally of 70-200 ha. Home ranges can overlap extensively. It is a social species. The basic unit is the family group, one or two adult females with their fawns of the current year and yearling does. Female groups are tolerant and open and can coalesce in larger herds. Males are solitary or form less stable bachelor groups. Groupsize varies according to the habitat, being larger in more open environments. Transitory aggregations of up to 200 animals are sometimes observed in open land on feeding grounds. Males and females tend to live apart most ofthe year.

Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and increasing. It is rare and with a very restricted present range in its original post-glacial refugium in south-western Turkey, limited to the Termessos National Park near Antalya. The Greek island of Rhodes hosts a small ancient introduced population. In Europe it is a very common species, with a discontinuous range; in 1975 it numbered about 120,000 individuals, increased to 530,000 in 2005; about 162,000 are annually harvested.

Bibliography. Apollonio, Andersen & Putman (2010), Apollonio, Festa-Bianchet et al. (1992,), Chapman, D.I. & Chapman, N.G. (1975), Chapman, N.G. & Chapman, D.l. (1980), Langbein & Putman (1992), Langbein & Thirgood (1989), Langbein et al. (2008), McElligot & Hayden (2000), Siefke & Stubbe (2008), Ueckerman & Hansen (1994).

Figures

13. Chital (Axis axis), 14. Hog Deer (Axis porcinus), 15. Bawean Deer (Axis kuhlii)

Distribution. Formerly Anatolia , Turkey , then has been introduced into Europe from ancient times and later into many other countries in North and South America, South Africa , Australia , New Zealand , and Fiji Is. The distribution map includes both the native range in Anatolia and the European continent with its old introductions.