Cervus elaphus, SUPPLIER AS RAW

Mărgărit, Monica & Bălășescu, Adrian, 2025, Economic significance of Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758 in the Gumelnița culture (5 th mill. BC): from food to technical resources, Anthropozoologica 60 (13), pp. 175-194 : 180-186

CERVUS ELAPHUS SUPPLIER AS RAW MATERIAL FOR THE OSSEOUS INDUSTRY

BONE

GumelniŢa A2

An astragalus from Hârșova has marks of abrasion on the lateral side, which have led to the attenuation of the anatomical protuberances. Under the microscope, a well-demarcated area with striations is visible, arranged obliquely to the axis of the bone, with an invasive extension.

A mandible ( Fig. 3A) fragment from the tell settlement of Cunești, found in the GumelniŢa A2 context ( Ștefan 2011), was longitudinally broken by percussion without the full arrangement of the debitage edges. Therefore, some of the impact points are visible, with the fractures specific to the use of direct percussion. To create the active end, abrasion ( Fig. 3C) was applied distally, only on the inferior side. The abrasion striations are superficial, rare and parallel between, partly overlapped by the use-wear and can be seen especially on the periphery of the active end, being arranged perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the piece. The use-wear developed on distal end, being characterized by the presence of small superimposed fractures ( Fig. 3B). We can assume that it was an intermediate piece, used for indirect percussion, starting from the fracture developed at the proximal level.

At Bordușani-Popină, a radius ( Fig. 3D) was found that preserves marks of a segmentation procedure at both ends by percussion without regularizing the debitage edges. The both ends have crushing on the periphery, developing an area that includes the entire circumference of the bone characterized by small superimposed fractures. In addition, the surface has a polish localized on small areas and fine striations arranged parallel to the longitudinal axis of the piece ( Fig. 3E, F). Macroscopically, the surface appears rather rough because the small successive fractures maintain this aspect. Compared with similar pieces published in the literature ( Sidéra 2010), we consider that it is a piece used similar to a hammer, in percussion operations.

The Cervus elaphus ulna ( Fig. 3G) was transformed into bevelled tools, as demonstrated by two pieces found at the GumelniŢa tell settlements. For the first item from Cunești, the epiphysis seems to have been removed by direct percussion. The debitage edge was not regularized so that the irregular morphology is visible, as well as the impact points that led to the fracture of the bone wall. At the distal level, an oblique blow was applied with the regularization of the debitage area by abrasion ( Fig. 3I). This abrasion was also applied on the superior side. The striations are grouped in an area covering the entire debitage edge, having a morphology parallel to each other, but arranged perpendicular to the bone axis, being dense and superficial in depth. They are more visible at the periphery of the active end. This has small fractures overlapped by use-wear polish which led to the rounding of the fil du tranchant and the appearance of a polish and very fine striations, parallel to each other, but also to the axis of the bone ( Fig. 3H). This aspect leads us to think that it was an intermediate tool used in indirect percussion. The fracture pattern at both ends and the type of use-wear at the distal level that continued to evolve despite the constant removal of small splinters of raw material by fracturing are indications for assuming this functional hypothesis. The same information is valid for a specimen from Hârșova. At the distal level, despite the fracture, a small area of the active end is preserved, characterized by surface flattening, macroscopic polish and functional striations.

Metapodials were transformed into pointed tools, this being the best-represented typological category in the analyzed assemblages. At the settlements of LuncaviŢa CetăŢuia (two pieces) and Carcaliu Vadu Mare (six pieces), several variants of the blank production by partitioning: bipartition, quadripartition and successive partitions, all conducted along the longitudinal axis of the bone block. In the case of bipartition ( five specimens), both double grooving and directe percussion were used. In the case of quadripartition ( one specimen), we do not know the debitage procedures, and in that of successive partitions ( one specimen), percussion was applied. For the shaping operation, scraping and/or abrasion were used ( Mihail & Provenzano 2014).

Four pointed tools made from metapodials were identified at the Bordușani tell settlement. The first specimen ( Fig. 3J) is fractured at the proximal level ( Fig. 3N). The flat blank was obtained by partitioning that involved grooving ( Fig. 3K) as we were able to identify a few marks. These are deep, long, parallel striations, creating a U-shaped groove. To arrange the convergence of the edges and the pointed end, a longitudinal scraping ( Fig. 3L) seems to have been applied to the distal part. Subsequently, the entire surface of the piece was intensely shaped by abrasion. The end is blunt, rounded, with a very strong macroscopic use-wear polish and transversal functional striations ( Fig. 3O). A second item has known the same method of longitudinal debitage by quadripartition in double grooving followed by longitudinal scraping extended over almost the entire surface of the piece, covered distally by abrasion for regularization. The end is fractured. In the case of the other two specimens, the debitage method is identical. Their surface was shaped by abrasion that covered almost the entire surface of the pieces. All pieces have deep transversal incisions ( Fig. 3M), irregularly arranged on their surface.

Three specimens from the same typological category come from the tell settlement of Hârșova. The debitage method is the same for all items namely quadripartitioning (rodtype) carried out by double grooving action ( two specimens) ( Fig. 3B) or by the combination of grooving and percussion ( one specimen). For the first piece ( Fig. 4A), the entire surface was regularized by abrasion. In addition, at the distal level, in order to create a pointed end, abrasion was applied circularly around the circumference ( Fig. 4C). The tip is very rounded, exhibiting polish and transverse striations ( Fig. 4D). Also, at the mesial level, the piece presents a strong macroscopic polish ( Fig. 4E) with the disappearance of abrasion marks – probably from handling. In the case of the second pointed tool, longitudinal scraping was used to arrange the active end. Deep, irregularly arranged transversal incisions are present on the surface. The end appears strongly blunted, with macroscopic polish being slightly fractured. On the last specimen, starting from the mesial level, transversal abrasion was applied on the edges and on both sides, creating the sharp morphology. The end is slightly functionally fractured.

Three other pointed tools were found at the Căscioarele site. Again, the method of debitage by quadripartition with the application of double grooving action is specific ( Fig. 4G). On the first two pieces, at the meso-distal level, scraping can be identified around the entire circumference, to create the sharp end superimposed at the distal level by abrasion. The distal end has changed its initial volume, being blunt with functional striations. On the third piece ( Fig. 4F), during the shaping operation, abrasion ( Fig. 4H) was applied to various areas. The use-wear of the distal end is intense with functional striations developed longitudinally ( Fig. 4I). The piece bears intense use-wear characterized by a macroscopic luster and a flattening of the surface ( Fig. 4J).

Two pointed tools from the tell settlement of Vitănești were obtained by quadripartition with direct percussion technique. The debitage edges were rigorously abraded. A third fragment was obtained by quadripartition in double grooving with the shaping of the debitage edges. Towards the distal end, bilateral scraping was applied to arrange the sharp morphology. A small proximal fragment also comes from here, most likely from a pointed end which illustrates a quadripartition procedure by double grooving.

One of the pieces from Vitănești is a needle ( Fig. 4K). The technological procedures are identical to those used for processing pointed tools (quadripartition in double grooving – Fig. 4L). The entire surface was regularized by abrasion ( Fig. 4M). At the proximal level, a perforation was made by unifacial rotation from the lower side ( Fig. 4O). The distal end is rounded with macroscopic luster ( Fig. 4N).

The blank for processing a spatula ( Fig. 5A) from the same site was obtained by quadripartition through percussion. The debitage edges were left in a raw state. The active end was created by abrasion ( Fig. 5C) applied only distally. On various areas, the abrasion was eliminated due to advanced use-wear. Longitudinal functional striations ( Fig. 5b), macroscopic luster, and a significant change in the initial volume of the active end are visible.

For one piece, although fractured from Hârșova, we assigned the function of a bevelled tool ( Fig. 5D). The bone was cut longitudinally by percussion without shaping the fracture edges. The active end was arranged only at the distal level, from the lower side by abrasion. These marks are preserved only in a small area because the end is fractured. It could have been an intermediate piece used in indirect percussion based on the type of fracturing.

For some fractured pieces, we could not establish the function. Two pieces from the tell settlement of Bordușani are proximal fragments with a fracture of functional origin. They were made from a bone cut longitudinally by grooving over which the shaping of the debitage edges was superimposed. One of the pieces was rigorously shaped at the level of the proximal end as well. Several transversal incisions appear on the superior side. They were, certainly, finished pieces.

At the tell settlement from Hârșova there are two pieces, both meso-proximal fragments. The bone was cut longitudinally by double grooving, the marks of which are very evident. Abrasion was applied to variable areas. On one of the pieces,

transversal incisions appear on the surface. The fracture of the pieces is of functional origin. Pieces undergoing processing are also present. At Hârșova, a bone ( Fig. 5E) was longitudinally cut by quadripartition with double grooving ( Fig. 5F). No shaping stage followed. The assemblage is completed by two waste fragments. The first ( Fig. 5G) illustrates a procedure for removal the epiphysis. The bone seems to have been longitudinally bipartitioned,

probably by percussion (we did not identify any grooving marks). Then, the removal of the epiphysis was carried out by sawing ( Fig. 5H). The second specimen is a debitage waste that preserves the marks of grooving intended to facilitate the longitudinal bipartition of the bone.

Waste fragments were also identified at Bordușani. These are bone fragments that show the marks of longitudinal debitage by grooving on one/two of the edges.

A femur from Hârșova was segmented transversely at both ends by percussion. One of the debitage edges presents a flattened appearance with small fractures and macroscopic polish. We did not identify any marks of shaping, which may mean that the blunting occurred due to use. We attribute its function to that of a hammer, similar to that of a radius described above.

A bevelled tool ( Fig. 5I) found at Vitănești was made from a tibia. The blank is flat, obtained by successive percussions without shaping the debitage edges. To arrange the proximal part, another blow was applied to one side, ensuring their convergence. At the distal level, bifacial abrasion ( Fig. 5K) was applied to create the active end. At the distal end, the abrasion marks were destroyed by use-wear, characterized by polish and deep, rare striations, perpendicular to the end ( Fig. 5J). A handle ( Fig. 5L) was obtained at Hârșova by transversal segmentation of a tibia at both ends by percussion. At the distal end, the debitage edges were regularized by abrasion ( Fig. 5M), with visible marks. At the proximal level, a perforation was made by rotation through the spongy tissue, while at the opposite end, the natural medullary canal was used.

A processed metatarsus from Hârșova is a blank. The bone was bipartitioned longitudinally by double grooving. There are no other interventions on the bone. A metatarsus fragment from Bordușani is only a waste, illustrating a quadripartition by double grooving.

The phalanges were technologically transformed at Vitănești. One phalanx ( Fig. 5O) was perforated by percussion ( Fig. 5P) applied bifacially. The use-wear of the perforation level ( Fig. 5Q) had begun to form. On another phalanx ( Fig. 5N), a procedure for flattening one of the faces by abrasion was applied.

GumelniŢa B1

An astragalus ( Fig. 6A) from the tell settlement of Vitănești was abraded on the lateral and medial sides acquiring a rectilinear morphology ( Fig. 6B, C).

In the same site, an ulna ( Fig. 6D) was transformed to function as a knife or scraper in the sense that the active end evolves laterally, showing use-wear ( Fig. 6E). The natural shape of the ulna was used with the distal end regularized by bifacial abrasion ( Fig. 6F). Due to the shape of the bone, it could be easily held in the hand.

Some bones were under processing, such as several metacarpals from the Vitănești tell settlement. Two bones ( Fig. 6G) were bipartitioned by double grooving ( Fig. 6H) with visible marks. Two other fragments illustrate a bipartition procedure by double grooving, more pronounced on one side with penetration of the bone wall. The bipartition procedure was not completed, so the bones have been preserved and could have been further processed. Finally, a bone fragment ( Fig. 6I) with technological marks can be considered waste because it can no longer be transformed into a finished piece. On one of the sides are visible the marks of a bipartition procedure by grooving ( Fig. 6J).

The metapodials were used to make four pointed tools ( Fig. 6K) at the Căscioarele tell settlement. To obtain the flat blank, a longitudinal debitage method was applied by quadripartition in double grooving ( Fig. 6N) or by a combination of grooving and percussion. At the meso-distal level, abrasion ( Fig. 6M) or longitudinal scraping was applied around the entire circumference to create a sharp end. This is blunt, having undergone significant modifications to its initial volume and presents an extended luster on the surface ( Fig. 6L). A specimen from Vitănești is a splinter from the diaphyseal wall, obtained by successive partitions through percussion. The shaping operation targeted only the proximal area, which was regularized by abrasion. Also, the arrangement of the active end was done only at the distal level through faceted transversal abrasion around the entire circumference. The distal end is considerably blunted, becoming rectilinear, and the technological marks have been removed by use-wear.

At Vitănești tell settlement, the metapodials were also transformed into bevelled tools ( Fig. 6O). For the first specimen, the longitudinal bipartition was achieved by double grooving ( Fig. 6S), which is still visible, because the abrasion was applied only towards the distal end ( Fig. 6Q) on both sides to create the active end. It is intensely blunt, with a luster more extended on the lower side ( Fig. 6P). The second bevelled tool is fractured proximally and longitudinally, so we do not have all the technological data. It was made from a flat blank, without the integral arrangement by abrasion of the preserved edge. The abrasion was applied to the lower side at the distal level. At the functional end, the piece displays small superimposed fractures hence the conclusion that it was used as an intermediate tool for indirect percussion.

A needle was found at the Căscioarele site and another one at the MăriuŢa site ( Fig. 7A). The blank was obtained by the same double grooving ( Fig. 7C) procedures as most pointed tools. To achieve the convergence of the edges towards the end, longitudinal scraping was applied. The entire surface was shaped by abrasion ( Fig. 7B). The perforation was created by bifacial rotation ( Fig. 7E). For the first item, the sharp end shows a functional fracture. In the case of the second needle, the functional end is very blunt, with transversal striations and macroscopic luster ( Fig. 7E).

Another metapodial from Vitănești can be considered debitage waste. It is an abandoned fragment that illustrates the longitudinal bipartition through grooving combined with percussion.

The metatarsals were transformed into pointed tools. At Vitănești, such a bone ( Fig. 7F) was cut longitudinally by quadripartition. The grooving ( Fig. 7H) shows signs of use-wear, being very difficult to identify because the debitage edges and both sides at the meso-distal level were rigorously abraded. Also, short transversal incisions appear randomly arranged on the surface. The piece is heavily worn, with most of the technological marks fading due to hand rubbing. The sharp end is blunt and slightly fractured ( Fig. 7G).

At MăriuŢa, two pointed tools were obtained from metatarsals cut longitudinally by quadripartition in double grooving ( Fig. 7K). For the first specimen, the convergence of the edges and the sharp end were obtained by longitudinal scraping. Both the grooving and the scraping marks were difficult to identify because the surface of the piece has been abraded. On the upper side, especially at the distal level, there are a series of transversal incisions, randomly arranged, made by the repeated passage of a flint tool with an irregular V-profile, probably intended to increase friction. The end is functionally broken. In the case of the second item ( Fig. 7I), the fracture edges have been fully regularized, by abrasion, as have the two sides at the meso-distal level. The distal end is slightly fractured but presents intense use-wear, spread across the surface ( Fig. 7J).

There are also blanks at the Vitănești settlement.The first item ( Fig. 7L) was obtained by the classical method: quadripartition by double grooving ( Fig. 7M). Another piece ( Fig. 7N) was bipartitioned through longitudinal percussion, after which a new bipartition by grooving was initiated. An attempt was made to deepen the groove on both the upper and lower sides. The action was not finished. We complete the Vitănești assemblage with a piece that can be considered waste ( Fig. 7O). The epiphysis is preserved, illustrating a procedure of bipartition by double grooving ( Fig. 7P). The bone was fractured, which was probably the reason for its abandonment.