taxonID	type	description	language	source
C225545DAA0A59184183FA01FC35F8DE.taxon	description	The association between the Oldowan and early Homo specimens can be observed in six occurrences (in Ethiopia, at Hadar, A. L. 666 (HC 1), and Fejej, Fj- 1 a (HC 2); in Kenya, in the western part of Lake Turkana, Lokalalei site complex (HC 2); in Tanzania, in Oldupai Gorge, MNK Skull site (HC 1), DK site (HC 2) and Ewass Oldupa site (HC 2) dated between 2.3 and 1.67 Ma (Table 1; Fig. 2). I describe here the two archaeological sites where hominin remains were discovered in archaeological layers or at the surface of the excavation (HC 1). The first is the archaeological site named A. L. 666, in the Hadar region in Ethiopia. The lithic assemblage (34 artefacts including 14 found in situ) is typical of the Oldowan (Kimbel et al. 1996; Plummer 2004; Goldman-Neuman & Hovers 2012). These assemblages are dated to c. 2.35 Ma by the Bouroukie Tuff 3 (Campisano & Feibel 2008) and between 2.3 and 1.9 Ma based on the fauna (Rowan et al. 2022). A maxilla (A. L. 666 - 1) was found on the surface of the hill (at the base). This latter shows clear early Homo traits and was assigned to Homo aff. H. habilis (Kimbel et al. 1996; Kimbel et al. 1997). However, Spoor et al. (2015) have considered that its morphology is not compatible with OH 7, and therefore with H. habilis, and furthermore does not present the facial morphology observed in H. rudolfensis. For the abovementioned authors, the morphology of A. L. 666 - 1 is more derived toward early H. erectus / ergaster. The second high-confidence site (HC 1) is MNK Skull site from Middle Bed II at Oldupai (Leakey 1971; de la Torre et al. 2021), which yielded an Oldowan assemblage and two in situ Homo habilis specimens (OH 13, paratype of Homo habilis), as well as dental remains catalogued as OH 15 (Leakey et al. 1964; Tobias 1991) dated to c. 1.67 Ma (de la Torre et al. 2021).	en	Prat, Sandrine (2025): Singular or plural Oldowan tool-makers during the Lower Pleistocene in eastern Africa? Comptes Rendus Palevol 24 (27): 545-561, DOI: 10.5852/cr-palevol2025v24a27, URL: https://doi.org/10.5852/cr-palevol2025v24a27
C225545DAA0A5916422AF887FB2EF83F.taxon	description	The association between Paranthropus boisei specimens and Oldowan assemblages can be observed in four sites (in Kenya at Homa Peninsula, Nyayanga site (HC 1); in the western part of Lake Turkana, Kokiselei 1 (HC 1) and at Koobi Fora, FXJj 20 (HC 1); in Tanzania, at Oldupai Gorge, BK site (HC 1 )), dated between 3.03 - 2.58 and 1.34 Ma (Table 1; Fig. 3). Here I describe the oldest and youngest sites with hominin remains discovered in archaeological layers or at the surface of the excavation (HC 1). The oldest site with an association between Oldowan and Paranthropus remains is Nyayanga, which in the Homa Peninsula near Lake Victoria’s Winam Gulf in Kenya. This site revealed one of the oldest Oldowan assemblages, dated between 3.032 Ma and 2.581 Ma (Plummer et al. 2023), with 135 in situ artefacts (excavations 3 and 5) and faunal remains, some of which bear cutmarks. The lithic artefacts show evidence of unifacial, bifacial, and multifacial reduction, and are comparable to lithics from other Oldowan sites. Use wear analyses indicate the processing of plant and animal tissues. From excavation 3, KNM-NG 77316 (a left lower molar fragment) was found in situ, associated with Oldowan artefacts (HC 1) and KNM-NG 77315 (a left upper molar) from the surface. Both teeth are assigned to Paranthropus based on their morphology and metrics. The youngest site illustrating an association between Paranthropus specimens and Oldowan artefacts is BK site in Oldupai Gorge (Bed II) in Tanzania. In this site dated to 1.34 Ma, a partial Paranthropus boisei skeleton (OH 80) was discovered in situ in level 4 (HC 1) (Domínguez-Rodrigo et al. 2013). This partial skeleton includes four postcranial bones and nine upper teeth, allocated to P. boisei on the basis of their morphology, dimensions, and postcranial bone section properties. This find represents the first partial skeleton attributed to P. boisei. A large Oldowan assemblage and numerous vertebrate fossils, including some with cut marks, were also unearthed in level 4 (Domínguez-Rodrigo et al. 2009).	en	Prat, Sandrine (2025): Singular or plural Oldowan tool-makers during the Lower Pleistocene in eastern Africa? Comptes Rendus Palevol 24 (27): 545-561, DOI: 10.5852/cr-palevol2025v24a27, URL: https://doi.org/10.5852/cr-palevol2025v24a27
C225545DAA0559174183FB80FAFBF83F.taxon	description	The association between Homo habilis (Homo habilis, Homo sp.), Paranthropus (P. aff. P. aethiopicus and Paranthropus boisei) specimens and Oldowan assemblages is documented in four sites (in Ethiopia, in the lower Omo Valley, OMO 57 - 5 (HC 1), in Kenya at Koobi Fora, FXJj 38 (HC 1), and in Tanzania, at Oldupai Gorge at FLK level 22 and FLK NN level 3 (HC 1) dated between 2.32 and 1.78 - 1.52 Ma (Fig. 4). I present here two sites from Oldupai gorge, which are of key importance in hominin evolution as they contain the holotypes of the species Paranthropus boisei and Homo habilis and OMO 57 - 5, in the lower Omo Valley in Ethiopia, discovered thanks to the work of Jean Chavaillon and Yves Coppens. At OMO 57 - 5 (Member F of the Shungura Formation), the 40 square metres excavation revealed four hominin tooth fragments and an in situ quartz flake along with 16 surface artefacts (Coppens et al. 1973; Chavaillon 1976). One tooth fragment (OMO 57 / 5 - 1972 - 371, a left lower second premolar, HC 1) is assigned to P. aff. P. aethiopicus, based on its morphology (Coppens et al. 1973; Coppens 1977; Suwa 1990; Wood & Leakey 2011). Another dental remain (OMO 57 / 5 - 1972 - 319), a left upper first premolar, is classified as indeterminate (White 1988), or as belonging to a non-robust indeterminate hominin (Suwa 1990), or Homo aff. Homo sp. (Wood & Leakey 2011). The Oldowan assemblage is characterized by systematic knapping and therefore not derived from natural fragmentation (de la Torre 2004). The deposit is dated between 2.32 Ma and 2.23 Ma (McDougall & Brown 2008). In Tanzania, at Oldupai, the FLK level 22 has yielded a dense Oldowan assemblage (over 255 artefacts) and abundant mammal fossils (over 3500) (Leakey 1971) dated between 1.845 + / - 0.002 and 1.839 + / - 0.005 Ma (Blumenschine et al. 2003, 2012). Four hominin individuals were identified, including the cranium OH 5 (HC 1), the Paranthropus boisei holotype (formerly Zinjanthropus boisei, Leakey 1959). The site also revealed some teeth and calvaria fragments (OH 6), attributed to H. habilis (HC 1) and some post-cranial bones (tibia and fibula, OH 35) attributed to either P. boisei or H. habilis as these fossils are associated with OH 5 or OH 6. The same association is also observed at FLK NN level 3 in Bed I at Oldupai. In this site numerous Oldowan stone artefacts were found alongside five hominin individuals, catalogued as OH 7 (juvenile mandible and cranial fragments and hand bones), holotype of Homo habilis (Leakey et al. 1964), OH 8 foot bones (paratype of H. habilis, Leakey et al. 1964), initially reported by Day & Napier (1964), OH 48 clavicle, OH 43 metatarsals and OH 49 radial shaft. The estimated age of these remains is 1.84 Ma (Deino 2012). OH 7 cranial remains are identified as H. habilis, but the allocation of the hand (OH 7) and foot bones (OH 8) to the same species is based on the parsimonious hypothesis of spatial association (Grine et al. 2022). However, some researchers have suggested that these hand bones (OH 7) should belong to Paranthropus (Moyà-Solà et al. 2008). Conversely, the morphology of the OH 8 hallucal tarsometatarsal complex is very similar to that of modern humans, which supports an attribute to the genus Homo (Berillon 1999).	en	Prat, Sandrine (2025): Singular or plural Oldowan tool-makers during the Lower Pleistocene in eastern Africa? Comptes Rendus Palevol 24 (27): 545-561, DOI: 10.5852/cr-palevol2025v24a27, URL: https://doi.org/10.5852/cr-palevol2025v24a27
C225545DAA0759154183FF6DFE37FAFC.taxon	description	The association between Homo erectus / Homo ergaster specimens and Oldowan assemblages is documented in four sites (in Ethiopia, at Melka Kunture, Garba IV level 5 (HC 1) and Gombore I (HC 1); in Kenya in the western part of Lake Turkana, Naiyena Engol 1 (HC 1); in Tanzania, at Oldupai, PTK site (HC 1 )) dated between 2 and 1.5 - 1.6 Ma (Fig. 5). I present here the discoveries from Melka Kunture, where Professor Yves Coppens worked and published some remains. In Melka Kunture, the site Garba IV, level D, yielded an Oldowan lithic assemblage and a young child’s mandible (MK 81 GAR IVE 0043, HC 1) attributed to early Homo erectus / Homo ergaster (Condemi 2004; Gallotti & Mussi 2015; Zanolli et al. 2016; Mussi et al. 2023). These remains were estimated to be slightly older than 1.7 Ma (Morgan et al. 2012; Tamrat et al. 2014; Gallotti & Mussi 2015), but are more recently considered to be around 2 Ma (Mussi et al. 2023). This site also reveals that hominins adapted to the high-altitude environment of the highlands of Melka Kunture (at or above 2000 m a. s. l.) during the Lower Pleistocene. During the excavation of the Melka Kunture Gombore I site, a well-preserved distal portion of a left humerus (Gombore IB- 7594, formally Melka Kunture 3 or MK 3, HC 1) was found in situ (Chavaillon & Berthelet 2004), alongside rich faunal and Oldowan assemblages, predomantly made up of pebble tools. The humerus is dated to 1.5 - 1.6 Ma (Morgan et al. 2012; Tamrat et al. 2014). Most authors attribute this specimen to the genus Homo (Senut 1979) and more specifically to Homo sp. (Chavaillon et al. 1977; Di Vincenzo et al. 2015) or to Homo erectus or aff. erectus (Coppens 2004; Cazenave et al. 2017). According to Coppens (2004), the robust humerus should be allocated to Homo habilis. However, Lague & Jungers (1996) suggest that this specimen should be assigned to Paranthropus boisei.	en	Prat, Sandrine (2025): Singular or plural Oldowan tool-makers during the Lower Pleistocene in eastern Africa? Comptes Rendus Palevol 24 (27): 545-561, DOI: 10.5852/cr-palevol2025v24a27, URL: https://doi.org/10.5852/cr-palevol2025v24a27
C225545DAA0759154183FAE1FBC2FCE3.taxon	description	The association between Homo erectus / Homo ergaster specimens and Oldowan and Acheulean artefacts can be observed in two sites in Ethiopia, Dana Aoule North (DAN 5) and Busidima North (BSN 12), in the Afar region (HC 1) dated between 1.6 and 1.26 Ma respectively. In Ethiopia, DAN 5 and BSN 12 sites at Gona in the Afar region have yielded significant hominin fossils in association with both Oldowan and Acheulean assemblages, as well as cut-marked bones (Semaw et al. 2020). The age of the DAN 5 hominin and lithic assemblage is estimated between 1.6 and 1.5 Ma. The well-preserved hominin skull (occipital and left maxilla), catalogued as DAN 5 / P 1 (HC 1) was found in situ, with one Oldowan core and six manuports. Other cranial parts, along with freshly exposed Mode 1 and Mode 2 artefacts, were found on the surface of the DAN 5 hominin locality. Similar collections were also found in the same stratigraphic area, approximately 140 metres towards the south-southwest (DAN 5 - South) and about 50 metres towards the west-northwest (DAN 5 - West). Based on morphology, shape and size analysis, this skull is assigned to Homo erectus (Semaw et al. 2020; Baab et al. 2022; Bruner et al. 2023), and presents some similarities with the Homo erectus crania found at Dmanisi (1.77 Ma in Georgia), KNM-ER 42700 (1.6 - 1.5 Ma in Kenya) and KNM-OL 45500 (0.95 Ma in Kenya), and significant differences with Asian Homo erectus. At site BSN 12, nearly six kilometers southwest of DAN 5, another hominin fossil (right orbital margin and frontal squama) catalogued as BSN 12 / P 1 (HC 1), was found closely associated with both Oldowan and Acheulean assemblages (Semaw et al. 2020) dated to 1.262 + / - 0.034 Ma. In terms of its anatomy and size, this robust hominin shares characteristics with Homo erectus from Indonesia and Eastern Asia, as well as others from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia (OH 9 and BOU-VP- 2 / 66) and Buia, Eritrea (UA- 31) (Semaw et al. 2020; Baab et al. 2022). According to Semaw et al. (2020) Acheulean toolmakers produced picks and handaxes alongside Mode 1 stone tools (i. e., Oldowan), whenever they needed sharp cutting flakes.	en	Prat, Sandrine (2025): Singular or plural Oldowan tool-makers during the Lower Pleistocene in eastern Africa? Comptes Rendus Palevol 24 (27): 545-561, DOI: 10.5852/cr-palevol2025v24a27, URL: https://doi.org/10.5852/cr-palevol2025v24a27
