identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
8E088780A9156648FF378C44FA3C159C.text	8E088780A9156648FF378C44FA3C159C.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Lacinularia Schweigger 1820	<div><p>Genus  Lacinularia Schweigger, 1820</p><p>Lacinularia is composed of seven morphospecies, which can be misidentified as members of the genus  Sinantherina . This means that at least two errors were made. (1) The gelatinous matrix present in  Lacinularia was overlooked. (To avoid confusion presence of the matrix may be demonstrated by using methylene blue, which stains the boundary of the jelly.) (2) A region of the foot was mistaken for an oviferon. Additionally, in certain  Sinantherina species, the presence of warts or spines were overlooked (see below).</p><p>Etymon of genus name (L., Lacin, a flap) is obscure, but may refer to the corona.</p><p>Diagnosis.  Corona round or heart-shaped (kidney-shaped). Ventrolateral antennae short. Animals forming spherical to elliptical colonies (usually 20 to&gt;100 individuals per colony, but occasionally many more) with a flocculent gelatinous matrix, often embedded with algae and other debris. Sessile species may form continuous mats over the substratum. Oviferon absent, eggs held within a gelatinous matrix. Oviparous. Planktonic or sessile.</p><p>Bhardwaj and Dattagupta (1984) provide information on colony formation in  Lacinularia racemovata Thorpe, 1893 and  Lacinularia flosculosa (O.F. Müller, 1773) . The species named  Lacinularia causeyae (Vidrine et al. 1985) was relocated to a new genus in the  Conochilidae:  Conochilopsis causeyae (Segers &amp; Wallace 2001) . All species inhabit a gelatinous matrix (tube), which becomes a confluent matrix in the six species forming colonies;  Lacinularia megalotrocha Thorpe, 1893 is solitary. When compared to other sessile species (e.g.,  Floscularia), all species of  Lacinularia possess small ventral antennae. Table 2 provides a compilation of the important characteristics of this genus.</p><p>*—  Lacinularia reticulata Anderson &amp; Shephard, 1892 is considered to be species inquirenda.</p><p>Dichotomous key to species of genus  Lacinularia</p><p>1 Planktonic (colonies infrequently attached to substratum)..................................................... 2</p><p>1’ Sessile............................................................................................. 3</p><p>2(1)  Corona circular, with shallow ventral sinus, slightly wider than body, dorsal gap present; body constricted at base; two eyespots present; colonial (prolate spheroid); total body length 450–750 µm. (Fig. 2A–C)...............  racemovata Thorpe, 1893 [Colonies of ~150 individuals attached to central rod of firm gelatinous material. Colony length is 2x width and rotates about its long axis. An adult and trophi are illustrated by Banik (1996), but reported as  L. elliptica, a junior subjective synonym.]</p><p>2’  Corona nearly circular to oval-shaped, slightly flattened ventrally; dorsal gap tiny; two eyespots present; colonial (spherical); total body length 700–900 µm. (Fig. 2D–G)......................................  ismailoviensis (Poggenpol, 1872) [The trophi are sketched by Poggenpol (1872), Dioni (1966), and Kutikova (2007). Kutikova (2007) illustrated the male and resting eggs and notes that colonies may attach to a substratum. The corona depicted in Figure 4 by Poggenpol (1872) is more elliptical than circular as is illustrated in Figure 5 of Kutikova (2007) and Figure 2 of Vidrine et al. (1985).]</p><p>3(1’) Dorsal gap in corona present (small or distinct)............................................................. 4</p><p>3’ Dorsal gap absent; corona with shallow ventral sinus; colonies attached to the substratum by a long stalk (peduncle)...... 6</p><p>4(3)  Corona heart to kidney shaped with deep ventral sinus....................................................... 5</p><p>4’  Corona oval- to spherical shape, slightly wider than the body, with short axis held at right angles to trunk; ciliated between trochus and cingulum; dorsal gap distinct; body narrow, elongate; long foot (⅔ whole length); eyespots absent; colonial; total body length 800–1000 µm. (Fig. 3A–C)................................................  elongata Shephard, 1896 [Shephard (1896) reports that this species may form spherical colonies or assemble into a continuous cluster resembling a “thick felt” (i.e., a mat). Shephard attributes that the “dirty brown colour” of the colonies may be characteristics of the species, but this may be a matter of the water conditions. Shephard’s rudimentary illustration of the trophi shows them to be asymmetrical.]</p><p>5(4)  Corona, deep ventral sinus; dorsal gap small; eyespots absent; solitary; total body length ~1000 µm. (Fig. 3D).........................................................................................  megalotrocha Thorpe, 1893</p><p>5’  Corona broad, deep ventral sinus; dorsal gap small; eyespots absent; colonial; total body length ≤ 2000 µm. (Fig. 4)......................................................................................  flosculosa (Müller, 1773) [Depending on the substratum to which it attaches, colonies of  L. flosculosa are more-or-less spherical, but as in  L. elongata this species may colonize substrata forming a massive continuous mat: see Figure 1 in Pourriot et al. (1972). Koste et al. (1995) illustrates the adult, trophi, and colony form, as well the males, apparently with eyespots.]</p><p>6(5)  Corona as wide as body, with very shallow ventral sinus; no dorsal gap; body ovoid; foot long, ca. ⅘ of body length; eyespots placed close to coronal edge; total body length ≤ 2600 µm; colonial. (Fig. 5A–C)...............  striolata Shephard, 1899 [A detailed anatomy is illustrated by (Shephard 1899), who also notes the following features. (1) The integument is striated. (2)  Corona moderately inclined to body forming a 45° ancle with the axis of the body. (3) The peduncle (stalk), which increases in length (≤ 12 mm) as the animals age, anchors the colony to its substratum. It is formed from the combined secretions of all members of the colony. (4) Shephard estimates that the spherical colonies of 5 mm in diameter may have&gt;3600 individuals.] (5) Gut is absent in the male, but possesses two eyespots, dorsal antenna, and a ciliated cup near the posterior. (6) The larvae aggregate into groups, thereby forming colonies of the same age; this behavior is termed geminative colony formation (Wallace et al. 2015). However, colony formation by the stem female was not described. (7) While feeding individuals in  L. striolata colonies apparently arrange themselves into arrays, as has been described by Wallace (1987) in  S. socialis . (8) Shepard hints at amphoteric reproduction.]</p><p>6’  Corona ~2–3x body width, with very shallow ventral sinus; trochus and cingulum widely separated; two eyespots, ½ way down the corona, close to trochus; foot &lt;⅘ of body length; peduncle long; total body length 750–1000 µm; colonial. (Fig. 5D–E)...............................................................................  pedunculata Hudson, 1889</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/8E088780A9156648FF378C44FA3C159C	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Davies, Natalie;Lafleur, Alexandre;Hochberg, Rick;Walsh, Elizabeth J.;Wallace, Robert L.	Davies, Natalie, Lafleur, Alexandre, Hochberg, Rick, Walsh, Elizabeth J., Wallace, Robert L. (2025): Key to sessile gnesiotrochan rotifers: Lacinularia and Sinantherina (Monogononta; Flosculariidae). Zootaxa 5575 (1): 177-193, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5575.1.10, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5575.1.10
8E088780A9116644FF378C2BFA3C13C5.text	8E088780A9116644FF378C2BFA3C13C5.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sinantherina Bory de St. Vincent 1826	<div><p>Genus  Sinantherina Bory de St. Vincent, 1826</p><p>Sinantherina is composed of five morphospecies, but unlike  Lacinularia,  Sinantherina possess an oviferon and they lack a gelatinous matrix.</p><p>Diagnosis.  Corona either heart-shaped or quadrangular; dorsal gap in coronal ciliation limited or absent. Dorsal and ventral antennae small. Some species with distinctive elliptical bodies (warts) located just below the corona on the ventral and/or dorsal sides. One species with ventral spines, but lacks warts. Foot of various lengths depending on species. Pigmented eyespots in juveniles (larvae) and planktonic adults, but lacking in adults of sessile species. Embryos brooded by adult females, fastened to specialized egg-bearing structure (oviferon) located on foot always below anus. No extensive gelatinous matrix (perhaps very limited amounts at base of foot). Adult females usually colonial with small (5–12 individuals) to large colonies (&gt;200 individuals), but occasionally solitary. Sessile with newborn females free-swimming until attachment or remaining within parent colony or planktonic. (NB: The oviferon is shared with  Pentatrocha gigantea, but the morphology of the coronae are distinctly different (Segers &amp; Shiel 2008).) Oviparous.</p><p>Of the five valid species, three possess glandular structures called warts for which there is evidence that they possess unpalatability factors (Felix et al. 1995; Hochberg et al. 2015; Wallace et al. 2023; Walsh et al. 2006) and one species has spines that may provide defense against fishes with a small mouth gape (Wallace 1987). Information on colony formation in a few species of  Sinantherina is provided by Bhardwaj and Dattagupta (1984) and (Garcia 2004). A review of this genus that includes a key to the species is provided by Dioni (1966). Table 3 provided a compilation of the important characteristics of this genus.</p><p>Dichotomous key to species of genus  Sinantherina</p><p>1 Warts (1 or 2 pairs) present on the anterio-ventral surface..................................................... 2 [Depending on the lighting conditions, these glands may appear to be white (epi- illumination) or dark (transmitted light).]</p><p>1’ Warts absent......................................................................................... 4</p><p>2(1) One pair of warts; corona quadrilateral, flexed dorsally; shallow ventral sinus; ventral antennae small; adults with 2 eyespots; planktonic, but may secrete a thread and adhere to a hydrophyte; colonial (~25–100 individuals); total body length ~1250 µm. (Fig. 6A–C)....................................................................  semibullata (Thorpe, 1889) [Adult females with 2 eyespots in the upper edge of the corona between the trochus and cingulum; males possess two eyespots. 2’ Two pairs of warts; corona with deep ventral sinus; two ventral antennae......................................... 3</p><p>The trophi may be slightly asymmetrical (Fig. 6C). Trophi also are presented by Banik (1996) and Dioni (1966). Temporary attachment by a common thread has been observed (Gunter &amp; Knight Jr. 1978). Unlike the illustration of Koste (1978) and Vidrine et al. (1985), the coronae of all individuals in a free swimming colony point in the direction of the colony movement. Colony size in a population in Wisconsin (43.9086417; -89.0952805) was recorded to be as follows: n=24, x =57.2, SD=17.6 (RLW, pers. obs.). A detailed analysis of this species was provided by Canella (1952).]</p><p>3 Foot long (¾ the length of the whole animal); colonial (~40–50 individuals); oviferon small, rudimentary (mere protuberance topped with 3 knobs); total body length &lt;1000–2500 µm; colonial (large). (Fig. 6D–F)............  procera (Thorpe, 1893) [Eyespots present in larvae and male; absent in the adult.An adult and trophi are documented by Banik (1996), who reports that colonies comprise individuals of the same age (size), with numbers varying between 12 and 65 individuals.]</p><p>3’ Foot not long; total body length ≤ 2000 µm; colonial (15 to ≥200 individuals), all adults about same size (age). (Fig. 7)....................................................................................  socialis (Linnaeus, 1758) [Trophi are documented by Melone et al. (1998). The biology and ecology of this species has been explored by many researchers (Champ 1978; Champ &amp; Pourriot 1977a; Champ &amp; Pourriot 1977b; Dioni 1966; Felix et al. 1995; Garcia 2004; Hochberg et al. 2015; Hochberg &amp; Lilley 2010; Rico-Martínez &amp; Walsh 2013; Wallace 1993; Wallace et al. 2023; Walsh et al. 2006). NB: We have noticed that young larval colonies may join (fuse) with an established colony thereby forming an integrated unit of mixed ages. Resting eggs (diapausing embryos) may be too large to pass through the cloaca and may be seen in the foot and even on the corona (Edmondson 1940).]</p><p>4(1’) Foot wide and short; adults lacking eyespots; solitary or small to large colonies (≤200 individuals); total body length ~ 650 µm; sessile; colonial. (Fig. 8).........................................................  ariprepes Edmondson, 1939 [The trophi are documented by Dioni (1966) and Koste (1978). Dioni (1966) also comments on the behavior of both the larvae and adults, and on the morphology of this species. Edmondson (1939) described  S. ariprepes as “… a very restless species, throwing itself about from side to side, rapidly contracting and expanding; its activity is broken by short periods of repose.” As seen in  S. socialis, diapausing embryos may be present in the foot.]</p><p>4’ Foot long; numerous, tiny spines present on anterio-ventral surface numerous just below the corona (small, irregularly placed, thorn-like shapes); ventral sinus shallow; dorsal gap small; eyespots present on upper edge of corona; planktonic, but may secrete a thread and adhere to a hydrophyte; spherical colonies (20–100 individuals); total body length 800–1000 µm; colonial. (Fig. 9)...........................................................................  spinosa (Thorpe, 1893)</p></div>	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/8E088780A9116644FF378C2BFA3C13C5	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Davies, Natalie;Lafleur, Alexandre;Hochberg, Rick;Walsh, Elizabeth J.;Wallace, Robert L.	Davies, Natalie, Lafleur, Alexandre, Hochberg, Rick, Walsh, Elizabeth J., Wallace, Robert L. (2025): Key to sessile gnesiotrochan rotifers: Lacinularia and Sinantherina (Monogononta; Flosculariidae). Zootaxa 5575 (1): 177-193, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5575.1.10, URL: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5575.1.10
