Scalopus aquaticus (Linnaeus, 1758)
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publication ID |
https://doi.org/ 10.5281/zenodo.6678191 |
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DOI |
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6671944 |
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persistent identifier |
https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0380B547-B659-FF89-9ABA-FB7CF848C899 |
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Valdenar |
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scientific name |
Scalopus aquaticus |
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Eastern Mole
Scalopus aquaticus View in CoL
French: Taupe a queue glabre / German: Ostamerikanischer Maulwurf / Spanish: Topo oriental
Taxonomy. Sorex aquaticus Linnaeus, 1758 ,
“America.” Restricted by H. H. T. Jackson in 1915 to “Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,” USA.
Scalopus aquaticus is the only extant species of Sacalopus. Former subspecies cryptus is synonymized with nanus. Sixteen subspecies recognized.
Subspecies and Distribution.
S.a.aquaticusLinnaeus,1758—Massachusetts,SENewYork,Connecticut,RhodeIsland,EPennsylvania,NewJersey,Maryland,Delaware,WestVirginia,Virginia,EKentucky,WNorthCarolina,ETennessee,NWSouthCarolina,andNGeorgia(USA). S.a.alleniR.H.Baker,1951—SCTexas(USA). S.a.anastasaeBangs,1898—AnastasiaI,Florida(USA). S.a.aereusBangs,1896—SKansas,Oklahoma,NETexas,Arkansas,andLouisiana(USA). S.a.australisF.M.Chapman,1893—SEGeorgiaandmostofFlorida(USA). S.a.bassiA.H.Howell,1939—knownonlyfromthetypelocalityinS.a.County,EFlorida(USA). S.a.carytH.H.T.Jackson,1914—SSouthDakota,SEWyoming,NEColorado,W&CNebraska,andNWKansas(USA). S.a.howelliH.H.T.Jackson,1914—Mississippi,SELouisiana,Alabama,extremeNWFlorida,W&NGeorgia,mostofNorthandSouthCarolina,andextremeSCVirginia(USA). S.a.inflatusH.H.T.Jackson,1914—extremeSTexas(USA)andNETamaulipas(Mexico). S.a.machrinoidesH.H.T.Jackson,1914—SMinnesota,ENebraska,Iowa,EKansas,Missouri,NEOklahoma,andNArkansas(USA). S.a.machrinusRafinesque,1832—SOntario(Canada)andWisconsin,Michigan,IIlinois,Indiana,Ohio,W&CKentucky,WWestVirginia,andW&CTennessee(USA). S.a.montanusR.H.Baker,1951—NCoahuila(Mexico)andadjacentTexas(USA). S.a.nanusW.B.Davis,1942—ETexas(USA). S.a.parvusRhoads,1894—EFlorida(USA). S.a.porteriSchwartz,1952—SFlorida(USA). S. a. texanusJ. A. Allen, 1893 — Presidio County, SW Texas (USA). View Figure
Descriptive notes. Head—body ¢.130-154 mm (males) and ¢.129-137 mm (females), tail 22-30 mm (males) and 15-28 mm (females), hindfoot 15-22 mm; weight 40-64 g. Males are an average of 28% heavier than females. The largest Eastern Moles occupy north-central part of the distribution, and the smallest and darkest moles live in the Miami region, Florida. Body is cylindrical, robust, and depressed, with relatively long and naked snout and short, round, and sparsely haired tail. Limbs are powerful, toes are webbed (webbing between toes of each foot aids in digging), and forefeet are wider than long. There is no eye opening and no external ear; diameter of external meatus is ¢.0-5 mm. Fur is dense and soft, varying from silver to nearly black. Pelage spots were recorded on 33-7% of Eastern Moles; spotting is usually orange and most pronounced on chest and abdomen; patches are 0-04-25 cm® (mean 2-8 cm?). Feet are fleshy. Females have six nipples. Skull is triangular and flat, braincase is short and wide, and orbit is extensive. Apical rostrum narrows abruptly. Mastoid is massive. Dental formula is I 3/2, C 1/0, P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2) = 36. I' is long and broad, markedly larger than posterior incisors and canine. Molars are relatively small; lower premolars increase in size posteriorly. Dental anomalies have been recorded in 14-5% of skulls, and 28-7% of skulls showed rudimentary teeth. Oligodonties were much more common than supernumerary teeth. Some specimens retained deciduous incisors. Karyotype is 2n = 34.
Habitat. Almost any forested or open habitat, preferring well-drained loose sandy or loamy soils and avoiding very dry or excessively wetsoils, from sea level to elevations of 1375 m (USA) and 1633 m (Mexico). Eastern Moles are absent in the Everglades but occupy some other major wetland areas in the south-eastern USA. They are common in open fields, pastures, meadows, thin woods, parks, and residential areas. Optimal habitat has heterogeneous mosaic of forest cover and open areas. Heavy clay, deep, dry sands, and gravelly or stony soil are avoided. Eastern Moles are much more abundant in the southern part of the distribution than in the northern part.
Food and Feeding. Principal prey is earthworms, and slugs, snails, centipedes, larval and adult insects are less important. Eastern Moles kill prey by pressing it against sides of burrow with front feet or by pilling loose earth on the target and biting it severely. They often enter anthills and feed on differentlife stages of ants. Diet contains considerable quantities of vegetable matter, including grass seeds and mycorrhiza. Eastern Moles have high-energy requirements and need considerable amounts of food; daily consumption is equal to 25-100% of body weight (average 32%). Captive individuals were maintained on a diet of ground meet, mice, birds, frogs, small snakes, and commercial dog food; they rarely drank water directly.
Breeding. Breeding season of the Eastern Mole is 3-4 weeks long; it starts in January in the south, and peaks between late March and early April elsewhere. Length of gestation is not known with certainty; estimates are 28-45 days. Female has one litter of 2-5 young each year in March—June. Young are blind and naked at birth, although they are large relative to size of mother. When ten days old, they have light gray velvety fur. Postnatal development is rapid, and young leave the nest at c.4 weeks old. They achieve morphological maturity at c.1 year of age. More than 50% of individuals die in their first six months; however, adult survivorship is relatively high and does not depend on age. Females survive better than males regardless of age class and have higher maximum longevity (6-2 years) than males (5-9 years).
Activity patterns. Eastern Moles are fossorial and dig two distinct types of tunnels. More permanent deep galleries are usually at least 25 cm underground,serve as living quarters, and provide protection during summer droughts and winter frosts. They can be continually used for up to five years. Shallow temporary passages, which are just under the ground’s surface, are used for foraging and are c.3.2-3.8 cm in diameter. Eastern Moles do not tolerate any openings in the gallery system and promptly repair all breaks in tunnels. In light soil, individuals burrow at 4-5-6 m/h and can excavate up to 31 m of surface passages/day. They move through deep galleries at 24 m/min. Eastern Moles push excess soil to the ground’s surface through vertical tunnels. Soaking rains accelerate digging activity. A nest of leaves and grasses is typically 18-22 cm long and 10-12 cm in diameter. It is from several centimeters to several decimeters underground, frequently beneath a boulder, stump, or bush. An individual usually has 2-7 nests; a single nest is used in winter, but several nests are used in summer. Occasionally, an Eastern Mole occupies a nest of a Prairie Vole (Microtus ochrogaster) and modifies the burrow system to its own needs. On average, females spend more time in the nest (39-2%) than males (35-7%). Even while in the nest, individuals are not quiescent for long but shift positions frequently. In some parts of Florida, Eastern Moles do not construct nests. Eastern Moles are good swimmers. They are active at all hours with two peaks: 08:00-16:00 h and 23:00-04:00 h. Periods spent in nest average 3-2 hours but can last up to 5-4 hours.
Movements, Home range and Social organization. Mean distance traveled daily is 404 m, and farthest distance from the nest is 204 m. Male Eastern Moles have larger home ranges (mean 1-1 ha) than females (0-3 ha). Home ranges overlap, and different individuals use the same surface tunnels at different times. No major shifts of home ranges were observed between seasons. Densities of Eastern Moles are 0-86-12-5 ind/ ha (means 1-7-3 ind/ha). Eastern Moles are solitary and territorial most of the year.
Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Eastern Mole is of special concern in Canada because of its restricted and fragmented distribution. The entire distribution in southern Ontario is ¢.1000 ha. In the USA, it is listed as secure, except for Arkansas and Louisiana where it is classified as “apparently” secure. Subspecies texanus has not been reconfirmed since its discovery in 1887. The Eastern Mole is considered endangered in Mexico, mainly because its limited distribution and habitat transformation. Population in Tamaulipas has disappeared because of spreading agriculture, and presence in Coahuila has not been reconfirmed since 1953. Humans generally perceive the Eastern Mole as negative due to damage caused by digging.
Bibliography. Bedford et al. (1999), Brown (1997), Castro-Arellano & Ceballos (2014d), Conaway (1959), Davis & Choate (1993), Eadie (1939), Environment Canada (2015), Feldhamer & Towery (2011), Feldhamer et al. (2013), Glendenning (1959), Hartman (1995a, 1995b), Hartman & Krenz (1993), Harvey (1976), Hisaw (1923), Jackson (1915), Kamm et al. (2008), Laerm, Chapman & Ford (2007b), Paradiso (1969), Schmidly (2004), Schwartz & Schwartz (2001), Yates & Schmidly (1977).
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