Pseudopus apodus (Pallas, 1775)

Ma‛ayan Lev, Dani Nadel, Mina Weinstein-Evron & Reuven Yeshurun, 2022, Squamates and amphibians from the Natufian cemetery of Raqefet Cave, Israel: taphonomy, paleoenvironments and paleoclimate, An International Journal of Paleobiology 34 (12), pp. 2394-2414 : 2403-2404

Pseudopus apodus (Pallas, 1775)

The European Glass Lizard is the most common lizard at the site (NISP = 143, 13% of the total assemblage) and is represented by maxillary and mandibular pieces, vertebrae ( Figure 5 (g-i)) and osteoderms (the latter were not calculated as part of the species NISP). The specimens were assigned to Pseudopus apodus following Villa and Delfino (2019) and Klembara et al. (2014, 2017) for the maxilla and dentary and Čerňanský et al. (2019) for trunk and caudal vertebrae. In the maxilla, the anteromedial process (septomaxillary ramus) and the anterolateral process (external ramus or the premaxillary process) are pointed and well-developed with a U-shaped concavity between them. The anterolateral process is slightly more robust and extends further anteriorly. The facial process has a steep inclination on both the anterior and posterior sides with a slightly concave anterior. The palatal shelf (supradental shelf) extends anteriorly and is mostly consistent in width. The superior alveolar foramen is not very pronounced in smaller specimens, however, in larger specimens it is wide and extends posteriorly to a wide groove on the dorsal surface of the posterior process. The maxillary teeth are large, subpleurodont and monocuspid. Anterior teeth are smaller and less robust with a pointed tip that is slightly curved posteriorly, the posterior teeth are larger and gradually increase in size posteriorly (the last posterior ones are smaller). The posterior teeth are cylindrical and robust with a blunt and rounded crown. The teeth are closely spaced. The lateral surface of the maxilla is smooth and bears five mental foramina.

Regarding the dentary, in medial view the mandibular symphysis is oval shaped with a slight angle. The Meckelian groove extends anteriorly into the mandibular symphysis and creates a kidneyshaped symphysial facet. The Meckelian groove is narrow and dorsoventrally broadened towards the posterior end and is medially covered by a ventrally flexed subdental shelf. Posterior to the alveolar foramen, the subdental shelf becomes narrow and rises dorsoventrally. The lateral surface of the dentary has four mental foramina. The dentary features large subpleurodont teeth. The teeth are monocuspid, cylindrical and slightly robust. In the anterior part of the dentary the teeth are less robust and their tip has a slight curve posteriorly, the remaining teeth are cylindrical and stout and have a blunt and rounded crown. The teeth reach their maximum size in the middle of the tooth row (the seventh to ninth teeth from the anterior). The teeth are more crowded posteriorly and become more widely spaced anteriorly.

The trunk vertebrae are procoelous. The cotyle is depressed and oval shaped that extends anteroventrally. The condyle is oval shaped and is compressed ventrally. In the dorsal view, the interzygapophyseal constriction is prominent. The prezygapophyseal articular facets are large elliptical and anterolaterally directed. The neural spine covers most of the centrum, the posterior half is considerably wider and more robust. In lateral view, the neural spine starts to rise dorsally, approximately in the middle of the neural arch; it is square in shape and has a slight posterior inclination (more pronounced in the more anterior presacral vertebrae).

In the ventral view, the centrum is wide, its ventral surface is smooth and slightly convex and the haemal keel is absent. The synapophyses protrude laterally with a dorsoventral orientation. In anterior view, the prezygapophyseal facets are dorsolaterally tilted. The neural canal is oval and small; the anterior edge of the neural arch is V-shaped. The synapophyses are rounded and they slightly protrude laterally. In the posterior view, the neural canal is slightly larger than in the anterior view, however, it is still small. The posterior edge of the neural canal is U-shaped. The postzygapophyseal facets are robust and laterally protruding.

The species inhabits the Mediterranean region, predominantly in the Mediterranean maquis (supplementary Figure S2 (d)). The European Glass Lizard was identified in various Epipaleolithic assemblages in Israel; the Epipaleolithic sites of Nahal Hadera V, Neve-David, Hefzibah ( Bar-Oz 2004) and Jorden River Dureijat ( Sharon et al. 2020), the Epipaleolithic layers of Sefunim Cave ( Tchernov 1984), Hayonim Cave and Meged Rockshelter ( Stiner 2005), and the Natufian layers of Hayonim Cave ( Stiner 2005), EWT ( Valla et al. 1986; Lev et al. 2020) and Eynan ( Biton et al. 2021).

Snakes are the most abundant group in the assemblage with 803 bones. Cervical and caudal vertebrae are common (n = 104, n = 89, respectively); however, identification to species level was done solely by trunk vertebrae.

Figures

Figure 2. Plan of Raqefet Cave (a) provenance of the faunal samples, with the different contexts presented in this study labelled in red (b).

Figure 5. Anura and lizard bones from Raqefet Cave. Bufotes viridis sl (a) presacral vertebra, from left to right, dorsal, anterior and posterior views; Stellagama cf. stellio (b) left maxilla, medial and lateral views; (c) right dentary, medial and lateral views; (d) trunk vertebra, dorsal, ventral, anterior, posterior and lateral views; Eumeces schneiderii (e) right dentary, medial and lateral views; (f) trunk vertebrae, dorsal, ventral, anterior, posterior and lateral views; Pseudopus apodus (g) left maxilla, medial and lateral views (h) left dentary, medial and lateral views; (i) trunk vertebra, dorsal, ventral, anterior, posterior and lateral views.