Echinophthiriidae, Enderlein, 1904

Vanstreels, Ralph Eric Thijl, Palma, Ricardo L. & Mironov, Sergey V., 2020, Arthropod parasites of Antarctic and Subantarctic birds and pinnipeds: A review of host-parasite associations, International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife 12, pp. 275-290 : 278-281

3.1. Lice ( Echinophthiriidae , Menoponidae and Philopteridae )

Sucking lice (suborder Anoplura ) feed on the blood of mammals

( Durden, 2001), whereas chewing lice (suborders Amblycera and Ischnocera) feed on the feathers and skin (a few species on blood and mucus) of their avian and mammalian hosts ( Clayton et al., 2007). These parasites complete their entire life cycle on the body of their host, and will usually die within a short period if removed ( Durden, 2001; Clayton et al., 2007). As a result, louse transmission usually requires direct animal-to-animal contact, or at least a high level of proximity (e.g. predation or scavenging, roosting or nesting in adjacent areas) ( Clayton et al., 2007). Some Ischnocera can also be transmitted by phoresis through hippoboscid flies ( Keirans, 1975), and although these vectors are not present in the Antarctic region, they do occur at Auckland and Campbell Islands ( Gressitt, 1965) where some of the same species of Antarctic birds are also present.

Five species of sucking lice from two genera were recorded on Antarctic hosts ( Table 2). These were representatives of Echinophthiriidae , a family with species living on aquatic mammals such as otters, seals, fur seals, sea lions and walruses ( Leonardi and Palma, 2013). Interestingly, sucking lice have been recorded only on Antarctic ‘true seals’ ( Hydrurga leptonyx , Leptonychotes weddellii , Lobodon carcinophagus , Mirounga leonina and Ommatophoca rossii ), but were not recorded from the two Antarctic species of fur seals ( Arctocephalus gazella and Arctocephalus tropicalis ). However, considering that three species of Echinophthiriidae have been recorded infesting three species of Arctocephalus spp. in South America, Africa and New Zealand ( Leonardi and Palma, 2013; Palma, 2017), it is plausible that lice may be found on Antarctic species of fur seals in the future.

Chewing lice were by far the most diverse group of parasitic arthropods recorded in the Antarctic region, with 94 species/subspecies. Menoponidae (Amblycera) is represented by 19 species from 6 genera and Philopteridae (Ischnocera) is represented by 75 species/subspecies from 21 genera ( Table 2). An additional two species of Menoponidae and six species of Philopteridae were also recorded on Antarctic hosts; however, those records were considered stragglers or contaminants. Of these, two were recorded within the Antarctic region: Austromenopon edwardsi Price and Clay, 1972 and Halipeurus heraldicus Timmermann, 1960 . Austromenopon edwardsi is regularly parasitic on shearwaters ( Puffinus spp. ) but was atypically recorded on a soft-plumaged petrel ( Pterodroma mollis ) at Kerguelen Island ( Price and Clay, 1972). Since shearwaters do not breed in the Antarctic region, however, it seems unlikely that this parasite would occur naturally in the region. Halipeurus heraldicus is regularly parasitic on gadfly petrels ( Pterodroma spp. ) in the Indian and Pacific Oceans ( Palma, 2011), and was atypically recorded on a soft-plumaged petrel at Kerguelen Island ( Clay and Moreby, 1970). It is unclear whether this record is a straggler, a contaminant or perhaps a misidentification of Halipeurus procellariae (J.C. Fabricius, 1775) ( Palma, 2011) . The remaining six species recorded on Antarctic hosts as stragglers or contaminants were exclusively found outside the Antarctic region, and therefore are unlikely to occur in the region.

Although chewing lice are generally considered to have a high host specificity, Ancistrona vagelli J.C. Fabricius, 1787 is a clear exception. This monotypic species has been recorded on a broad variety of Procellariiformes hosts ( Palma, 2017). It does not appear to be particularly abundant in any host ( Palma, 2017), but in the Antarctic region infests 16 recorded hosts. Ancistrona vagelli lacks significant morphological features that would justify subdividing it ( Palma, 2017), however it remains to be determined whether there are significant genetic differences among its populations from different hosts or geographical areas.

The taxonomy of the Longimenopon spp. infesting seabirds in the Antarctic region is unclear ( Palma, 2017). This genus currently comprises six species, all parasitic on Procellariiformes ( Timmermann, 1957; Nakagawa, 1959). Longimenopon galeatum Timmermann, 1957 was described from specimens collected from a white-faced storm-petrel ( Pelagodroma marina ) at Tristan da Cunha Islands ( Timmermann, 1957). Although this species has since been recorded on a number of Antarctic hosts, only the records of L. galeatum on Antarctic prion ( Pachyptila desolata ) and Kerguelen petrel ( Aphrodroma brevirostris ) at South Orkney, Macquarie and Gough Islands ( Timmermann, 1957; Watson, 1967) are considered valid. A complete revision of the genus is necessary before the species infesting other Antarctic hosts ( Halobaena caerulea , Pachyptila spp. and Pterodroma mollis ) can be identified ( Palma, 2017).

Two species of chewing lice have been recorded infesting the Georgia pintail ( Anas georgica ) in mainland South America ( Hinojosa-Sáez et al., 2009), Anaticola crassicornis (Scopoli, 1763) and Anatoecus dentatus (Scopoli, 1763) , both of which are cosmopolitan as frequent parasites of dabbling ducks ( Anas spp. ) (e.g. Dik and Uslu, 2012; Grossi et al., 2014; Naz et al., 2016). It remains to be determined whether the records of Anaticola sp. and Anatoecus sp. from Bird Island, South Georgia ( Clay and Moreby, 1970; Bonner and Croxall, 1988) correspond to Anaticola crassicornis and Anatoecus dentatus . It also seems plausible that these species could infest the southern pintail ( Anas eatoni ), an understudied dabbling duck endemic to the Crozet and

Kerguelen Islands.