Saguinus bicolor (Spix, 1823)
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publication ID |
https://doi.org/ 10.5281/zenodo.5730714 |
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https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5730884 |
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persistent identifier |
https://treatment.plazi.org/id/DF668780-FFF5-FFE4-FAD2-FD8A6D28E75F |
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Conny |
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Saguinus bicolor |
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38 View On .
Pied Tamarin
French: Tamarin bicolore / German: Zweifarbtamarin / Spanish: Tamarin bicolor Other common names: Brazilian Bare-faced Tamarin, Pied Bare-faced Tamarin
Taxonomy. Midas bicolor Spix, 1823 View in CoL ,
Manaus, Barra do Rio Negro, Brazil.
Formerly considered to have two subspecies (martinst and ochraceus), but S. martinst is now a full species, and ochraceus may be a hybrid S. martinsi x S. bicolor . Monotypic.
Distribution. Brazilian Amazon, in a small area N of the Rio Solimoes, from the Rio Negro E as far as the Rio Urubu, and N up to the Rio Cuieiras, 30-45 km N of the city of Manaus. View Figure
Descriptive notes. Head-body 23-33 cm,tail 34-42 cm; weight 480-600 g. Arms, neck, chest, crown, and mantle of the Pied Tamarin are whitish, abruptly demarcated from the agouti-brown dorsal hindquarters. The underside, including inner surfaces of hindlimbs, is orange or reddish-gold. The tail is dark brown above and orange below, and the face and ears are bare and black.
Habitat. Primary mature, old (canopy height 20-25 m) and young (canopy height 15 m) secondary lowland forest (the latter known as “capoeira”), generally on dry land, although it is also known to occur in seasonally flooded forest. Home ranges of the Pied Tamarin include a mosaic of these forest types, “campinarana” (white sand forest) patches, and edge habitat. It can be seen in disturbed forest fragments in suburban areas of Manaus. In one study near the Rio Taruma-acu by S. Egler, a group of Pied Tamarin used mature secondary forest (52% of the time) and capoeira in roughly equal proportions (47%); use of a small patch of campinarana was minimal (c.1%).
Food and Feeding. An eleven-month study of a Pied Tamarin group near the Rio Taruma-acu found that fruits comprised ¢.96% of the diet, exudates (gum) 3%, and flowers (nectar) c.1%. Fruits came from 21 plants in twelve families and were mostly berries and pods. Berries were generally small, except those of Couma utilis ( Apocynaceae ), and pods were mainly small and easily opened, except those of Inga ingoides ( Fabaceae ) that were 40-80 cm long and required concerted effort by older individuals to open them. Seeds of Inga have juicy sweet arils. Seeds are usually discarded, unless small (e.g. Rollinia exsucca, Annonaceae ). The most important species were: Couma utilis, a staple, providing fruits throughout the wet season in November—April; Myrcia cf. fallax ( Myrtaceae ), very important in the dry season months of August and September; and Protium aracouchini ( Burseraceae ) in May-July. Two other species provided fruits for prolonged periods: Miconia lepidota ( Melastomataceae ) in the dry season in May-September and Piper aduncum ( Piperaceae ), intermittently in June and November—April in the wet season. Pied Tamarins eat fruit from all levels of the forest, up to 20 m or more, but mostly they find them in trees with small canopies at 10-12 m above the forest floor. In the dry season, they eat small amounts of readily available gums from seed pods of Parkia auriculata and P. multijuga ( Fabaceae ) and the trunk and branches of Tapirira guianensis ( Anacardiaceae ) and Vochysia obscura ( Vochysiaceae ) after attack by wood-boring insects. In urban areas, they eat cultivated fruits such as mango ( Mangifera indica ), jackfruit ( Artocarpus heterophyllus), jambo or Malay apple (Eugenia malaccensis), papaya (Carica papaya), Inga ( Inga edulis ), and banana (Musa paradisiaca). Animal prey includes long-horned grasshoppers ( Tettigoniidae ), cicadas, caterpillars, beetles, termites, and spiders. They eat more animal prey in the dry season when fruit is less abundant. They find their prey by searching among foliage and along branches and use stalk-and-pounce techniques. Double-toothed kites (Harpagus bidentatus) follow groups of Pied Tamarins during the day for periods of up to an hour, evidently to catch flushed cicadas.
Breeding. In general, a single breeding female in each group produces twins once or twice a year, with birth peaks in March-April and December. In the wild, newborns have also been seen in May, June, and July. Gestation is c.160 days, and interbirth inter vals in captivity are 170-481 days (average 208 days).
Activity patterns. Pied Tamarins begin their day shortly after sunrise at c.06:00 h, with alternating bouts of foraging for animal prey and feeding on fruits until about midday when they tend to rest. Feeding on fruit is less prevalent in the afternoon when they alternate resting and feeding until c.17:00 h, at which time they enter dense foliage and vine tangles to sleep.
Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes of Pied Tamarins are generally 1-12 individuals, although groups of up to 25 have been observed in forest patches in the suburbs of Manaus. It is possible that these large groups are a product of forest fragmentation and may only be temporary. Groups monitored for extended periods are quite stable, with a single breeding female, 1-2 adult males, and subadults, juveniles, and infants. Only minor changes in group composition occur with emigration (disappearance) and births. A group of 6-10 individuals, studied in the forested grounds of a hotel near the Rio Taruma-acu, used 12 ha during eleven months. In another forest fragment in the suburbs of Manaus, a group of eleven individuals occupied 17 ha. A home range of more than 100 ha was recorded in the much more extensive forest of Adolphe Ducke Forest Reserve, indicating considerably lower densities (1-1 groups/km?) than in the suburban forest fragments. Surveys there found 41 groups of 2-11 individuals, with a mean of 4-8 ind/group and a density of 4-8 ind/ km? or c.1 group/km?. They are found at elevations of 40-140 m on plateaus and slopes and in stream valley bottoms.
Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The distribution of the Pied Tamarin is centered on Manaus, a rapidly expanding city, with a population of more than 1,600,000. Deforestation is notable along the major highways (e.g. BR-174 to Boa Vista and AM-010 to Itacoatiara in the east). The continued expansion ofthe city is a major threat, with the forest diminishing and becoming increasingly fragmented, particularly during the last 30 years. The original distribution of the Pied Tamarin encompassed 7730 km? but 6540 km?* remained in 1999 and 6050 km? in 2009. The gradual retraction of its distribution and the expansion of that of the Midas Tamarin (S. midas ), which is competitively replacing it, are important threats. Retraction ofits distribution is most notable in the east; in the early 1970s, Pied Tamrains could be found as far east as the Rio Uatuma, but by the early 1980s, they were only found as far as the town of Itacioatiara, and by 1998, the easternmost records were from the right bank of the Rio Urubu. The Midas Tamarin occurs at higher densities and tends to have larger social groups than the Pied Tamarin, and, in captivity, it is less susceptible to diseases. These attributes could enhance its competitive advantage over the Pied Tamarin, but the specific reasons for this apparent competitive exclusion are unknown. The Pied Tamarin occurs in protected areas including Tupé Sustainable Development Reserve, Rio Negro—-Sector Sul State Park (only the southernmost part, south of the Rio Cuieiras), and Margem Esquerda do Rio Negro State Environmental Protection Area (Sector Taruma-Acu-Taruma-Mirim). In the urban district of Manaus, it occurs in small reserves: Mindu Municipal Park, Mindu Springs Municipal Park, Sumauma State Park, Sauim-Castanheiras Wildlife Refuge, and five private reserves totaling 132 ha, along with the Taruma/Ponta Negra Environmental Protection Area. Other areas where it is protected include Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve, Walter Alberto Egler Reserve, and an area of the Centro de Instrucao de Guerra em Selva (CIGS) that still has a tenuous corridor connection to the almost totally isolated Ducke Reserve.
Bibliography. Ayres et al. (1980, 1982), Coimbra-Filho (1987), Egler (1991a, 1991b, 1992, 1993), Epple et al. (2002), Gordo et al. (2008), Heistermann et al. (1987), Hershkovitz (1977), Price & Feistner (2001), Rohe (2006), Snowdon & Soini (1988), Subira (1998a, 1998b, 2009), Vidal & Cintra (2006), Wormell (1994, 2005), Wormell & Feistner (1992), Wormell et al. (1996).
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